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Linear or U-shaped? Age and subjective well-being in Ukraine

stmm. 2026 (1): 128–139

DOI https://doi.org/10.15407/sociology2026.01.128

Full text: https://stmm.in.ua/archive/ukr/2026-1/9.pdf

RUSLANA MOSKOTINA, Research Fellow at the Sector of Sociological Monitoring, Institute of Sociology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (12, Shovkovychna St., Kyiv, 01021); Senior Analyst at the Center for Sociological Research, KSE University (3, Mykoly Shpaka St., 03113)

rmoskotina@ukr.net

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2195-3121

The paradox of well-being suggests that the relationship between age and subjective well-being follows a U-shaped curve: well-being decreases initially, reaches its lowest point in midlife, and then increases in older age despite worsening objective life conditions. However, previous studies provide mixed results: some confirm the presence of a U-curve, while others find a linear decline in well-being or a more complex nonlinear relationship. For Ukraine, the results are also inconsistent, and most publications do not specifically focus on this country. This study examines whether the relationship between age and the cognitive and affective dimensions of subjective well-being in Ukraine follows a positive quadratic (U-shaped) pattern or a negative linear one. Based on six waves of the European Social Survey (ESS) from 2005 to 2022, this study analyzes the relationship between age and subjective well-being among Ukrainians, measured through life satisfaction and happiness. ESS is used because its repeated cross-sectional design enables the separation of age, cohort, and period effects, allowing a closer approximation of the “net” association between age and well-being. To address methodological challenges related to age–period–cohort confounding, the analysis employs cross-classified random effects regression models that simultaneously account for cohort and period effects. Regression models show that both linear and quadratic associations of age with these well-being measures are statistically significant. Nevertheless, the U-curve is observable for life satisfaction, though not very pronounced, while happiness shows only a negative linear relationship. The findings highlight the need for further research on the paradox of well-being in Ukraine, particularly by incorporating additional ESS waves collected during the full-scale Russian invasion, exploring more complex nonlinear specifications, and examining potential mediating and moderating mechanisms between age and well-being.

Keywords: subjective well-being, age, paradox of well-being, ESS

Referenes:

  1. Baird, B.M., Lucas, R.E., Donnellan, M.B. (2010). Life satisfaction across the lifespan: Findings from two nationally representative panel studies. Social Indicators Research, 99(2), 183-203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9584-9

  2. Bartram, D. (2020). Age and life satisfaction: Getting control variables under control. Sociology, 55(2), 421-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038520926871

  3. Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01

  4. Biermann, P., Bitzer, J., Gören, E. (2022). The relationship between age and subjective well-being: Estimating within and between effects simultaneously. The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 21, 100366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeoa.2021.100366

  5. Blanchflower, D.G. (2021). Is happiness U-shaped everywhere? Age and subjective well-being in 145 countries. Journal of Population Economics, 34, 575-624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-020-00797-z

  6. Blanchflower, D.G., Oswald, A.J. (2008). Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle? Social Science & Medicine, 66(8), 1733-1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030

  7. Cheng, T.C., Powdthavee, N., Oswald, A.J. (2017). Longitudinal evidence for a midlife nadir in human well-being: Results from four data sets. The Economic Journal, 127(599), 126-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12256

  8. Deaton, A. (2008). Income, health, and well-being around the world: Evidence from the Gallup World Poll. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 53-72. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.2.53

  9. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2012). ESS2 - integrated file, edition 3.6. (Italy not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  10. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2018). ESS3 - integrated file, edition 3.7. (Latvia and Romania not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  11. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2023). ESS4 - integrated file, edition 4.6. (Austria and Lithuania not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  12. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025a). ESS5 - integrated file, edition 3.6. (Austria not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  13. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025b). ESS6 - integrated file, edition 2.7. [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  14. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025c). Ukrainian European Social Survey 2022. [Data and documentation]. Retrieved from: https://europeansocialsurvey.org/about/resources/ukrainian-european-social-survey-2022

  15. Frijters, P., Beatton, T. (2012). The mystery of the U-shaped relationship between happiness and age. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 82(2-3), 525-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.03.008

  16. Galambos, N.L., Krahn, H.J., Johnson, M.D., Lachman, M.E. (2020). The U shape of happiness across the life course: Expanding the discussion. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(4), 898-912. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620902428

  17. Glatz, C., Schwerdtfeger, A. (2022). Disentangling the causal structure between social trust, institutional trust, and subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 163, 1323-1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-02914-9

  18. Graham, C., Ruiz Pozuelo, J. (2016). Happiness, stress, and age: How the U curve varies across people and places. Journal of Population Economics, 30(1), 225-264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-016-0611-2

  19. Hansen, T., Blekesaune, M. (2022). The age and well-being "paradox": A longitudinal and multidimensional reconsideration. European Journal of Ageing, 19, 1277-1286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-022-00709-y

  20. Hansen, T., Slagsvold, B. (2012). The age and subjective well-being paradox revisited: A multidimensional perspective. Norsk Epidemiologi, 22(2), 187-195. https://doi.org/10.5324/nje.v22i2.1565

  21. Hellevik, O. (2017). The U-shaped age-happiness relationship: Real or methodological artifact? Quality & Quantity, 51(1), 177-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-015-0300-3

  22. Jivraj, S., Nazroo, J., Vanhoutte, B., Chandola, T. (2014). Aging and subjective well-being in later life. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(6), 930-941. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu006

  23. Kassenboehmer, S.C., Haisken-DeNew, J.P. (2012). Heresy or enlightenment? The well-being age U-shape effect is flat. Economics Letters, 117(1), 235-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.05.013

  24. Kratz, F., Brüderl, J. (2021, April 18). The age trajectory of happiness. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/d8f2z

  25. OECD. (2024). Measuring subjective well-being across OECD countries. OECD Policy Insights on Well-being, Inclusion and Equal Opportunity, 16. Paris: OECD Publishing.

  26. Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

  27. Ryff, C.D., Boylan, J.M., Kirsch, J.A. (2021). Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being. In: Measuring well-being (pp. 92-135). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197512531.003.0005

  28. Swift, H.J., Vauclair, C.-M., Abrams, D., Bratt, C., Marques, S., Lima, M.-L. (2014). Revisiting the paradox of well-being: The importance of national context. The Journals of Gerontolog. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(6), 920-929. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu011

  29. Wunder, C., Wiencierz, A., Schwarze, J., Küchenhoff, H. (2013). Well-being over the life span: Semiparametric evidence from British and German longitudinal data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(1), 154-167. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00222

  30. Yang, Y. (2008). Social inequalities in happiness in the United States, 1972 to 2004: An age-period-cohort analysis. American Sociological Review, 73(2), 204-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300202

Received 04.10.2025

Accepted for publication after review 26.11.2025

Linear or U-shaped? Age and subjective well-being in Ukraine

stmm. 2026 (1): 128–139

DOI https://doi.org/10.15407/sociology2026.01.128

Full text: https://stmm.in.ua/archive/ukr/2026-1/9.pdf

RUSLANA MOSKOTINA, Research Fellow at the Sector of Sociological Monitoring, Institute of Sociology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (12, Shovkovychna St., Kyiv, 01021); Senior Analyst at the Center for Sociological Research, KSE University (3, Mykoly Shpaka St., 03113)

rmoskotina@ukr.net

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2195-3121

The paradox of well-being suggests that the relationship between age and subjective well-being follows a U-shaped curve: well-being decreases initially, reaches its lowest point in midlife, and then increases in older age despite worsening objective life conditions. However, previous studies provide mixed results: some confirm the presence of a U-curve, while others find a linear decline in well-being or a more complex nonlinear relationship. For Ukraine, the results are also inconsistent, and most publications do not specifically focus on this country. This study examines whether the relationship between age and the cognitive and affective dimensions of subjective well-being in Ukraine follows a positive quadratic (U-shaped) pattern or a negative linear one. Based on six waves of the European Social Survey (ESS) from 2005 to 2022, this study analyzes the relationship between age and subjective well-being among Ukrainians, measured through life satisfaction and happiness. ESS is used because its repeated cross-sectional design enables the separation of age, cohort, and period effects, allowing a closer approximation of the “net” association between age and well-being. To address methodological challenges related to age–period–cohort confounding, the analysis employs cross-classified random effects regression models that simultaneously account for cohort and period effects. Regression models show that both linear and quadratic associations of age with these well-being measures are statistically significant. Nevertheless, the U-curve is observable for life satisfaction, though not very pronounced, while happiness shows only a negative linear relationship. The findings highlight the need for further research on the paradox of well-being in Ukraine, particularly by incorporating additional ESS waves collected during the full-scale Russian invasion, exploring more complex nonlinear specifications, and examining potential mediating and moderating mechanisms between age and well-being.

Keywords: subjective well-being, age, paradox of well-being, ESS

Referenes:

  1. Baird, B.M., Lucas, R.E., Donnellan, M.B. (2010). Life satisfaction across the lifespan: Findings from two nationally representative panel studies. Social Indicators Research, 99(2), 183-203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9584-9

  2. Bartram, D. (2020). Age and life satisfaction: Getting control variables under control. Sociology, 55(2), 421-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038520926871

  3. Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01

  4. Biermann, P., Bitzer, J., Gören, E. (2022). The relationship between age and subjective well-being: Estimating within and between effects simultaneously. The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 21, 100366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeoa.2021.100366

  5. Blanchflower, D.G. (2021). Is happiness U-shaped everywhere? Age and subjective well-being in 145 countries. Journal of Population Economics, 34, 575-624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-020-00797-z

  6. Blanchflower, D.G., Oswald, A.J. (2008). Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle? Social Science & Medicine, 66(8), 1733-1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030

  7. Cheng, T.C., Powdthavee, N., Oswald, A.J. (2017). Longitudinal evidence for a midlife nadir in human well-being: Results from four data sets. The Economic Journal, 127(599), 126-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12256

  8. Deaton, A. (2008). Income, health, and well-being around the world: Evidence from the Gallup World Poll. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 53-72. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.2.53

  9. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2012). ESS2 - integrated file, edition 3.6. (Italy not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  10. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2018). ESS3 - integrated file, edition 3.7. (Latvia and Romania not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  11. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2023). ESS4 - integrated file, edition 4.6. (Austria and Lithuania not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  12. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025a). ESS5 - integrated file, edition 3.6. (Austria not included). [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  13. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025b). ESS6 - integrated file, edition 2.7. [Data set]. Sikt - Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research.

  14. European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC). (2025c). Ukrainian European Social Survey 2022. [Data and documentation]. Retrieved from: https://europeansocialsurvey.org/about/resources/ukrainian-european-social-survey-2022

  15. Frijters, P., Beatton, T. (2012). The mystery of the U-shaped relationship between happiness and age. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 82(2-3), 525-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.03.008

  16. Galambos, N.L., Krahn, H.J., Johnson, M.D., Lachman, M.E. (2020). The U shape of happiness across the life course: Expanding the discussion. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(4), 898-912. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620902428

  17. Glatz, C., Schwerdtfeger, A. (2022). Disentangling the causal structure between social trust, institutional trust, and subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 163, 1323-1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-02914-9

  18. Graham, C., Ruiz Pozuelo, J. (2016). Happiness, stress, and age: How the U curve varies across people and places. Journal of Population Economics, 30(1), 225-264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-016-0611-2

  19. Hansen, T., Blekesaune, M. (2022). The age and well-being "paradox": A longitudinal and multidimensional reconsideration. European Journal of Ageing, 19, 1277-1286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-022-00709-y

  20. Hansen, T., Slagsvold, B. (2012). The age and subjective well-being paradox revisited: A multidimensional perspective. Norsk Epidemiologi, 22(2), 187-195. https://doi.org/10.5324/nje.v22i2.1565

  21. Hellevik, O. (2017). The U-shaped age-happiness relationship: Real or methodological artifact? Quality & Quantity, 51(1), 177-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-015-0300-3

  22. Jivraj, S., Nazroo, J., Vanhoutte, B., Chandola, T. (2014). Aging and subjective well-being in later life. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(6), 930-941. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu006

  23. Kassenboehmer, S.C., Haisken-DeNew, J.P. (2012). Heresy or enlightenment? The well-being age U-shape effect is flat. Economics Letters, 117(1), 235-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.05.013

  24. Kratz, F., Brüderl, J. (2021, April 18). The age trajectory of happiness. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/d8f2z

  25. OECD. (2024). Measuring subjective well-being across OECD countries. OECD Policy Insights on Well-being, Inclusion and Equal Opportunity, 16. Paris: OECD Publishing.

  26. Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

  27. Ryff, C.D., Boylan, J.M., Kirsch, J.A. (2021). Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being. In: Measuring well-being (pp. 92-135). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197512531.003.0005

  28. Swift, H.J., Vauclair, C.-M., Abrams, D., Bratt, C., Marques, S., Lima, M.-L. (2014). Revisiting the paradox of well-being: The importance of national context. The Journals of Gerontolog. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(6), 920-929. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu011

  29. Wunder, C., Wiencierz, A., Schwarze, J., Küchenhoff, H. (2013). Well-being over the life span: Semiparametric evidence from British and German longitudinal data. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(1), 154-167. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00222

  30. Yang, Y. (2008). Social inequalities in happiness in the United States, 1972 to 2004: An age-period-cohort analysis. American Sociological Review, 73(2), 204-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300202

Received 04.10.2025

Accepted for publication after review 26.11.2025

LATEST PRINTED ISSUE

LATEST FREELY ACCESSIBLE MATERIALS

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